Native America Federal Policies from the 1800s to 2000 Essay Example

Native America Federal Policies from the 1800s to 2000 Essay Adriana Calderon April 28, 2011 Ethnic Study 1 Native America Federal Policies from the 1800s to 2000 The new US Government was careful not to antagonize the Indians and sought to treat them with mutual respect. This is evidenced in early treaties where the term â€Å"Red Brothers† was used to convey this sentiment of equality. By 1800 interaction between the Indian and white settlers had become quite common through trade. Many Indians traded for household goods, traps and tools. The US became concerned about the cultural differences and sought to improve the Indian station in life by providing education. The United States no longer feared the Indian but rather took a paternal position toward the Indians and the treaty language reflected this when the Indian was referred to as â€Å"Our Red Children. † The US Constitution via Article I section gives the Federal Government dominant power over states in policy making; the congress shall have the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes. The Constitution further enumerates these powers denied to the states in Article I section x. The state of Georgia challenged the federal government’s power over states rights, a precursor to the Civil War, when it challenged the trust relationship and the autonomy of the Cherokee. Supreme Court Justice John Marshall in three decisions (Marshall Trilogy) upheld the United States’ federal power, defined the responsibility of the doctrine of federal trust, and clarified the sovereignty of Indian nations: Johnson v McIntosh 1823, Cherokee v Georgia 1831, Worcester v Georgia 1832. The new government wanted to keep peace with the Indians and used trade as its device. We will write a custom essay sample on Native America Federal Policies from the 1800s to 2000 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Native America Federal Policies from the 1800s to 2000 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Native America Federal Policies from the 1800s to 2000 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It was hoped that the interaction between the white settlers and Indians would create a dependence of the Indian for white goods and soothe the tensions of the white settlers through familiarity via social interaction. President George Washington proposed government regulated and operated trading houses. The Government Trading Act of April 18, 1796 was established for carrying on a liberal trade with the several Indian nations, within the limits of the United States. This act restricted trade exclusively through government agents; anyone else was subject to fines. It as hoped independent and illegal trade with the Indians would be unprofitable and a deterrent to independent and foreign white traders as the Government Trading Houses were very competitive. The new government placed Indian affairs under the jurisdiction of the War Department. In this way the government could police, protect, and regulate trade and commerce with the Indian tribes. The treaties, doctrines, and Congression al acts affected the lives of Indian tribes within the limits of the United States. Many of the Cherokee in Georgia assimilated to the white man’s way of life. Chief William McIntosh, an extreme example, was a slave holding plantation owner who lived in a two story Federalist style mansion. The trading houses allowed many Indians such as the Cherokee and Seminole Creek to acquire such things as colorful cloth that was permanently incorporated into their dress. Household cooking utensils, hunting rifles, along with the technology for logging and agriculture was attractive to many Indians and they soon settled into log cabins and communities that mirrored many white settlements. Other Indians preferred to remain hunters and gathers and fur trade became their means of barter. The new country was difficult to police and fraud prospered. Both government and non-government trading houses started the illegal trade in liquor. The interaction between the white man and Indian introduced new words and technologies into each other’s culture. The white man absorbed the snowshoe, canoe, tobacco, and corn whereas the Indian absorbed the rifle, the kettle, and many household items into their culture. Some Indians adopted Christianity. The Civilization Fund Act (March 3, 1819) was enacted when The United States government became increasingly concerned with the education of the Indian tribes in contact with white settlements and encourage activities of benevolent societies in providing schools for the Indians and authorized an annual ‘civilization fund’ to stimulate and promote this work. With many Indians assimilating into the white culture a change in white attitude toward the Indian heralded a new era of Indian relations. As a result of the War of 1812 the government trading houses suffered economically and private trading interests succeeded in bringing about the abolition of this institution via an act of Congress May 6, 1822. Trade by unscrupulous individuals flourished though the US Government enacted several regulation measures. Pressure of immigrants wanting to settle on Indian land increased and Indian tribes sought resolution on title and real estate issues with the Supreme Court based on their status as a foreign nation. The Marshall Trilogy Decisions clarified the status of the Indian nations in respect to the United States. With increased litigation and policy in Indian affairs Secretary of War John C Calhoun created the Bureau of Indian Affairs within the War Department March 11, 1824. The issue of Indian Removal increased as Georgia pressed the federal government to hold to its promise of April 24, 1802, in which the United States had agreed to extinguish the Indian land titles in the state as soon as it could be done peaceably and on reasonable terms in exchange for the state’s western land claims. President James Monroe believed that the land belonged to the Indians by binding treaties. He personally did not agree with Georgia’s claim but did propose a voluntary removal policy as the best solution in a letter to Congress January 27, 1825. The issue did not go away; the rich farm lands of the Cherokee and gold in the Georgia hills fueled the removal movement. President Andrew Jackson, an infamous Indian fighter, in his First Annual Address to Congress in December of 1829 let it be known that he was firmly committed to the removal of the eastern tribes to a region west of the Mississippi River. On May 28, 1830 The Indian Removal Act was passed by Congress after months of bitter debate not only in Congress but in the press. This act did not authorize enforced removal of any Indians, but merely gave the President power to initiate land exchanges with Indian nations residing within the states or territories. However the Indians chose not to move and force was necessary. The Cherokee population numbered in the thousands and a gradual removal was planned; but when gold was discovered on Cherokee land the removal was hastened. During the autumn and winter of 1838 the last of the eastern tribes were rounded up and detained in concentration camps before being forced marched west. This March which took the life of one in four Indians is commonly referred to as the â€Å"Trail of Tears. † During this period the United States was engaged in a civil war that tested the Union. Its military might was improved and after the civil war the government used this might to control the increased Indian hostilities in the West. Manifest Destiny seemed confirmed as a basic truth and the fate of the Plains Indians was secured with the completion of the First Transcontinental Railway May 10, 1869 in Promontory Point, Utah. The removal and relocation had tremendous consequences for many of the eastern tribes. The Choctaw, Cherokee, and Creeks were removed to Oklahoma along with numerous other tribes. Their physical and ecological environment was different. The land was unfamiliar and they were forced to live with other tribes that could not speak their language or understand their customs and traditions; some of these were natural enemies. Hunters and gathers had to become farmers. They were often short-changed by the unscrupulous traders increasing their dependence on the United States Government for subsistence. These tribes lost their autonomy as the Bureau of Indian Affairs replaced their council governments. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was more concerned with the assimilation of Indians and less interested in preserving the traditional way of life of Indians. Boarding schools were built to educate the children in the white dominant culture. Traditions and knowledge of the homeland and culture were kept alive by elders secretly. Many of the removed eastern tribes adopted Christianity through forced acculturation via the education of the children. The Plains Indians were forced to submit to reservation life as the buffalo, their means of subsistence, was eradicated largely in part by the railroad industry. By 1870 much of what is referred to now as the Continental Forty-Eight was dominated by the white man. The Sioux, Cheyenne, and Apache tribes would continue to struggle for another twenty years but the railroad and the loss of the buffalo marked the end of the second period. Next was the beginning of a third period of Native American relations with the United States Government, one of forced assimilation. This period began with the end of the more infamous Indian wars and the capture, surrender, or death of such notable personalities: Cochise and Geronimo of the Apaches, Little Wolf and Dull Knife of the Northern Cheyenne, and Crazy Horse, Red Cloud, Sitting Bull and Black Elk of the Sioux. Nothing incensed the American attitude toward the Native Indian as the defeat (massacre) of General George Custer and his troops at Little Bighorn Creek. The United States Army, thirsting for revenge, the country north and west of the Black Hills, killing Indians wherever they could be found, Though Indian military resistance had be contained, the massacre of 230 Sioux at Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge Reservation Dec. 28, 1890 marked the end of Indian independence. The US quit making treaties with Indians because it was viewed as an impediment to the assimilation of Indians. Because of humanitarian attacks upon the treaty system and the objections of the House of Representatives to the concentration of authority for dealing with the Indians in the hands of the Senate through its treaty-making power, Congress in 1871, in an obscure rider to the Indian appropriation bill, outlawed further treaty making with Indian tribes. Shortly thereafter the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Francis A. Walker, assigned Indian agencies to religious societies primarily to advance the moral and religious character of the Indians in November 1872. By doing so the US government was removed as the initial contact. The political nomination to the office of agent was removed and placed in the hands to those interested only in good will. In essence Indian tribes had no forum of direct interaction with the US Government. The Dawes Act of 1887 reflected the forced assimilation views of those who would reform Indian Policy. This act dissolved many tribes as legal entities, wiped out tribal ownership of land, and set up individual Indian family heads with 160 free acres. If the Indians behaved themselves like good white settlers, they would get full title to their holdings, as well as citizenship in twenty-five years. Congress via the Indian citizenship Act, June 2, 1924 granted citizenship to all Indians born within the United States who were not yet citizens. Since war, disease, and starvation reduced Indian populations, the excess reservation land that was not allotted was reacquired by the US Government and sold to railroads and white settlers. The federal government allocated the proceeds from the sale of these lands to be used to educate and civilize the native people. This period of assimilation and allotment affected the lives of Native Americans more than any other period. The violent conflicts between the Indian tribes and the US military reduced tribal populations. The termination of treaties reduced tribal status to something less than nation status. By not having treaty making power tribes lost effective negotiation power with the US Government. The Dawes Act served to destroy both the reservation system and tribal organization. The Dawes Act tried to make rugged individualists out of the Indians by making them farmers. The Dawes Act removed nearly fifty percent of Native American land from Indian tribes and accelerated the already rapid loss of traditional Indian culture. The religious controlled agencies were instrumental in separating the children from their tribes, teaching these children English and indoctrinating them with white values and customs. For the next fifty years The Dawes Act served as the government’s official Indian policy.

Making Sense of Since

Making Sense of Since Making Sense of Since Making Sense of Since By Maeve Maddox Sometimes a word that is clear in one context, may create ambiguity in another. Consider the following excerpt from a professional newspaper review of Hotel for Dogs. The story follows 16-year-old Andi (Emma Roberts) and her 11-year-old brother Bruce (Jake T. Austin) who, since the death of their parents, have lived in five foster homes over two years. Each move is challenging as they have to find ways to smuggle their charming Jack Russell terrier Friday, a member of their family since happier times, into each new household. If you havent seen the film, can you tell from this paragraph if the children had the dog before their parents died? Dont study it. Just base your impression on one quick reading. The first time I read it, I thought it meant that theyd had the dog before the parents died, but as I went on with the review, I began to wonder if the children had acquired the dog after being sent into foster care. In both phrases, the word since is a preposition. The OED gives two meanings for since as a preposition: 1. Ever or continuously from (a specified time, etc.) till now. 2. During the period between (a specified time) and now; at some time subsequent to or after. OED In the phrase since the death of their parents, the since marks a specific starting point. In the phrase since happier times, the time period is ambiguous. This since could, like the first since, mark a starting point subsequent to the happy times enjoyed with their parents, or it could indicate an earlier starting point, during the happy times. I havent seen the film, so to figure out the writers intended meaning, I googled (Oh, dear. I made a Google search of) They had a dog named Friday and found this refreshingly unambiguous statement in a review written by a high school senior: When their parents were still alive they had a dog named Friday and after their parents passed away they kept the dog Janeane White Not every reader would have had difficulty with this paragraph, but at least one did. And if one reader stumbles, its likely that others will. To avoid confusion, its probably a good idea for a writer to avoid using the same word twice in the same paragraph, especially words that have more than one meaning, however slight the difference. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Words for Facial ExpressionsSelect vs. SelectedList of Prefixes and Suffixes and their Meanings

Biography of Jean Baptiste Lamarck

Biography of Jean Baptiste Lamarck Early Life and Education Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was born in Northern France on August 1, 1744. He was the youngest of eleven children born to Philippe Jacques de Monet de La Marck and Marie-Franà §oise de Fontaines de Chuignolles, a noble but not rich family. Most men in Lamarcks family went into the military, including his father and older brothers. However, Jeans father pushed him toward a career in the Church, so Lamarck went to a Jesuit college in the late 1750s. When his father died in 1760, Lamarck rode off to a battle in Germany and joined the French army. He quickly rose through the military ranks and became a commanding Lieutenant over troops stationed in Monaco. Unfortunately, Lamarck was injured during a game he was playing with his troops and after surgery made the injury worse, he was decommissioned. He then went off to study medicine with his brother, but decided along the way that the natural world, and particularly botany, were a better choice for him. Biography In 1778 he published Flore franà §aise, a book that contained the first dichotomous key that helped identify different species based on contrasting characteristics. His work earned him the title of Botanist to the King which was given to him by Comte de Buffon in 1781. He was able to then travel around Europe and collect plant samples and data for his work. Turning his attention to the animal kingdom, Lamarck was the first to use the term invertebrate to describe animals without backbones. He began collecting fossils and studying all sorts of simple species. Unfortunately, he became completely blind before he finished his writings on the subject, but he was assisted by his daughter so he could publish his works on zoology. His most well-known contributions to zoology were rooted in the Theory of Evolution. Lamarck was the first to claim that humans had evolved from a lower species. In fact, his hypothesis stated that all living things built up from the most simple all the way up to humans. He believed that new species spontaneously generated and body parts or organs that were not used would just shrivel up and go away. His contemporary, Georges Cuvier, quickly denounced this idea and worked hard to promote his own nearly opposite ideas. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was one of the first scientists to publish the idea that adaptation occurred in species to help them better survive in the environment. He went on to assert that these physical changes were then passed down to the next generation. While this is now known to be incorrect, Charles Darwin used these ideas when forming his theory of Natural Selection. Personal Life Jean-Baptiste Lamarck had a total of eight children with three different wives. His first wife, Marie Rosalie Delaporte, gave him six children before she died in 1792. However, they did not marry until she was on her deathbed. His second wife, Charlotte Victoire Reverdy gave birth to two children but died two years after they were married. His final wife, Julie Mallet, did not have any children before she died in 1819. It is rumored that Lamarck may have had a fourth wife, but it has not been confirmed. However, it is clear that he had one deaf son and another son who was declared clinically insane. His two living daughters took care of him on his deathbed and were left poor. Only one living son was making a good living as an engineer and had children at the time of Lamarcks death.

Traumatic Brain Injury in the military Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Traumatic Brain Injury in the military - Essay Example According to DHCC (2010), "TBI is often associated with severe multiple trauma, post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or undiagnosed concussions and screening patients who are at risk for a TBI is important in order to ensure that TBIs are identified and appropriately treated." In this essay, TBI among military personnel will be discussed briefly. Any insult to the brain due to some form of external force is known as traumatic brain injury. According to DHCC (2010), "A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is defined as a blow or jolt to the head or a penetrating head injury that disrupts the function of the brain." The injury can lead to any sequelae like altered consciousness, impaired cognition, delirium and impaired physical functioning. These changes can lead to various problems with thinking, language, movement, concentration and even sensation. TBI can also lead to other emotional and personality changes, tiredness, depression, violence, irritability, disinhibited behavior and lack of ability to carry out day-to-day activities. Among the military personnel, those who are on active duty are at more risk of suffering TBI when compared to their civilian peers. In general, statistics show that men between 18- 24 years of age are at increased risk of TBI when compared to other age groups (DVBIC, 2009). It is also important to note than TBI can occur even during daily activities, especially when they are unusual. Military personnel frequently enjoy certain non-service activities like climbing mountains, parachuting, riding motor cycles and car racing. These activities may be a part of their daily physical training. These services are basically intended to increase their quality of life, however; they are also fraught with increased risk of TBI (DVBIC, 2009). Spinal cord injuries and TBI account for about 25 percent of casualities related to combat (DVBIC, 2009). The most common type of combat-related injury is concussion and mild traumatic brain injury. In current scen ario, use of protective devices like Kelvar helmets and various types of advanced body armours have infact, minimized the incidence of TBI and have saved the lives of many military personnel. But these gadgets do not protect the frontal aspects of the head, the facial parts and also the spinal cord. Thus, though advanced medical care helps in improving survival rates, the long terms effects of the injuries continue to haunt the personnel (DVBIC, 2009). TBIs in military operations are often complex and can be of multiple types. A blast can cause sudden both external and internal injuries. It can cause contusions and concussions in the brain. Flying fragments of the blast can cause tear of various structures and lead to various sequelae. The various signs and symptoms related to TBI depend on the extent and area of injury. In war, poly trauma can occur and due to other organ damage and injury to other parts of the body, it is often difficult to predict the extent of brain injury. Whil e most symptoms are obvious immediately after the injury, some may manifest a few days or even a few weeks after injury. Some patients may present with simple problems like confabulation wherein the individual cooks up stories in gaps of memory (Kennard, 2006). In mild TBI, there may be no obvious changes on CT or MRI scan. However, the patient may present with few symptoms like blurring of

Housing Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Housing Industry - Essay Example The increase in the number of household is as a result of population growth and migration and this in turn results inot an increase in the demand for houses. In 2006 the total number of houses in England was 21,989 thousand according to table 3.1, an analysis of the various regions it was evident that majority of these dwellings which is 16% were located in south east while only 5% of these dwellings were located in the north east region. (Calculations in appendixes 1) The following chart demonstrates the total number of dwellings in thousands for each region in 2006. It is evident from the chart that majority of dwellings are located in the south east and London which is 16% and 15% respectively of total dwellings in England. The following is an analysis of the total number of dwellings in the regions for the year 1996 and the year 2006(calculations in appendixes 2). From the above chart it is evident that each region has experienced an increase in the number of dwellings, however some regions have higher increase than other regions especially the South east region has the highest increase in the number of houses while the north east region has the lowest increase in the numbe... The north east region and the south east region: Percentages of the total for each year: From the above chart it is evident that there has been a decline in the percentage of the total for the South east region whereas there has been a relatively low decline in the percentage of the total for the North East region, however from the trend it is evident that the South east region has maintained a relatively high percentage of the total over the years compared to the North East region. Calculations in appendix 3. Trend in the number of houses in the N. east region and the S. east region: The following chart summarizes the trend in the number of houses in the N. east region: From the above chart it is evident that there has been an increase in the number of houses in the N. east region over the years. From the above chart it is evident that there has been a gradual increase in the number of houses in the S. east region over the years. Moving averages: We now analyze the moving average for the two regions over the years. The following table summarizes the simple centered 3 step moving average for the N. east region from the year 1997 to 2005: (calculations in appendix 4) N. East N. East moving average 1996 1,094 1997 1,100 1099.333 1998 1,104 1104 1999 1,108 1108 2000 1,112 1111.667 2001 1,115 1115 2002 1,118 1118.333 2003 1,122 1122 2004 1,126 1126.333 2005 1,131 1131.333 2006 1,137 The data is summarized by the following chart: The above line chart shows the 3 period centered moving average and the total number of houses in the N. East region. The following table summarizes the simple centered 3 step moving average for the S. east region from the year

The Empty pillow :: essays research papers

Using the theory of reason action-Fishbein and applying it on a 5 min. scene of the movie by: AlomaniQ8 THE EMPTY PILLOW This is a love story that it’s events occur, in Egypt, in the fifties, where there were strict traditions about love between non married lovers, and where the word of the parents rules the lives of their sons and daughters. In that movie, a young man (salah) who is still a student falls in love with a beautiful girl (Sameha), whom she is also an eighteen years old student, they are both college students, that get supported by their families. The scene begins, when Salah asks his father that he wants to be married, but his father laughs, and asks him if he is able to support himself or her. Salah’s father suggested that he should wait until he graduates and gets a job, so he could marry her. Salah refuses, saying that she would get married to someone else, and her parents will not wait for me until I graduate. Unfortunately a doctor proposes to her an d asks her hand to be his wife. Sameha’s father and mother agree instantly, without giving Sameha any notice, only thinking of the position and the how they would guarantee a wonderful future for their daughter with this doctor, adding that he is a very nice man and have great reputation. Sameha says that she is young to be married, and disagree. Sameha’s father say’s â€Å"no doughtier of mine argues with me in such matters, you will do as I say† Consequently, Sameha stop arguing. And shows yielding. She think about the hard time choosing between the two, the one she loves! or the fine rich physician, which her parents ergs her to marry. In order to prevent the marriage, Salah meets her in the desert where they used to meet. He starts convincing her to run a way with him. Sameha refuses, saying that her parents might have a heart attack, then she will not forgive herself. Salah remembers, what one of his friends suggested to him, and that he should rape her, and in this way she would be his according to the traditions. Consequently he tries to do so. She cries and begs him to let her go. But he refuses, until he notices the ring that she is still wearing, which he brought to her as a token of their love.

Literacy Narrative Unit Reflection Essay

Literacy narrative can be described as a narrative from a first person perspective. This narrative would be based on experiences the writer faces regardless in any face of his or her life. Reflecting on the literacy narrative I was given to complete, there were parts where I struggled to write and there were also parts I breezed through easily. To start off, I had struggled in making sure there were no errors in the process of me composing my narrative. With the advantage of making and submitting a draft prior to submitting the final paper, several grammatical corrections and sentence improvements was done and perfected to the highest extent possible. Another struggle I faced was the emotional impact it had on me as I recalled every bitter moment from my past experience dealing with literacy. Time was also an addition to my struggle since I am working 9 hours a day as part of my internship and at the same time I had only one week to complete the draft and three other assignments for the class. Time management was a crucial aspect in the process of completing my literacy narrative. The part where I breezed to easily was the writing out everything that came to mind. I never faced the problem to describe every event that I experienced in words. To further make my literacy narrative perfect, additional time would have helped extensively since it was a very word dense assignment. I’ve done several literacy narratives in the past in both the languages I am familiar with which is English and Malay. What made this literacy narrative different from the rest was the type of feedback I had from my draft. Every feedback given to me was helpful and had provided me the picture of the message that Mr. Krueger, my English professor was trying to convey to me. In the past, my experiences with feedback were rather vague or unclear due to the level of English proficiency my school teachers had. In the completion of my literacy narrative, the discussions that was assigned to the class really helped the whole process of writing. This was because all the discussions were based on literacy narratives from the textbook, thus this gave me a rough idea on how a literacy narrative should be.